Positive Reinforcement Training (PRT) can be considered an effective form of restraint and handling (to some extent) and has the potential to reduce the stress which could be associated with other methods significantly. By working with an animal and gaining voluntary co-operation through reward-based training exercises, there is the potential great number of routine health checks and other medical interventions (such as x-rays, injections - e.g. vaccinations and injectable anaesthetics and ultrasound scans) can be carried out without the need for other direct methods of physical handling or chemical restraint. 

In mid-2014, after recognising the gap in training provision at the Deer Centre, I took it upon myself to design, implement and facilitate a PRT programme with our Short-Clawed Otter group, working with them individually and as a group. As their primary keeper, I was able to take advantage of the trust and strong relationships I had built up with each of out otters and use this as a basis for training. I began with basic target training for all 4 (at the time) and have since played to the strengths of each otter by building in other training exercises tailored to them. I have since started the same training programme with our youngest otter, Bruce, who is making good progress.

Training achievements to date include:

• Basic targeting - 'touch' (nose to target), 'stand' (stand on hind legs to present underside for inspection / facilitate weighing), 'hold' (maintain position at target for specified time), and 'scale' (move onto scales for weighing) - all 5 otters
• Basic stationing - moving to or standing at predetermined location as asked - all 5 otters 
• Presentation of individual forepaws paws to target - Keisha, Huey & Olivia 
• Holding at target whilst abdomen is checked using my free hand - Keisha, Nipper & Olivia
• Holding at target whilst tail is manually manipulated for general checks - Keisha & Nipper (confident), Olivia & Huey (oncoming)
• Mouth opens - Keisha & Olivia (necessary for Keisha due to age (8) and issues with dentition)

In the short video clip to the right, I am shown carrying out very basic targeting with Olivia, which is being used as part of the weight reduction programme I implemented for her in late 2015 due to excessive weight gain. Olivia has lost 1 kg in weight over the past 8 months due to the combination of a weight reduction diet, greater exercise and training. Of all the otters, she is now by far the most responsive to any training carried out with her - becoming very excitable when she sees the target brought in - picks up new concepts very quickly and is very focused during all sessions. 

I am currently working on training all 5 otters to enter a transport crate voluntarily, and ultimately hope to build up to more advanced training in the hope of voluntary co-operation for x-rays (due to the need for regular scans of the kidneys due to the species' propensity to renal calculi), vaccinations and blood draws. 

In the interest of safety, the only safe means of handling medium to large deer species without crush facilities is by remote darting. At the Deer Centre, any moderately invasive procedure requires large species such as Pere David's, White Lipped and Bactrian Deer to be darted using M99 (Etorphine) by our Head Keeper and in the presence of a vet. 

Even with this in mind, there are numerous risks to consider for both personnel and the animal in question, and extreme care must be taken at all times. Though capture myopathy is not as significant a risk for larger deer species as for smaller species such as Muntjac (see below), darting procedures are still agents of stress and can lead to unpredictable behaviour and secondary health issues for the animal. External temperatures and weather are important considerations prior to darting in the interests of animal health and therefore careful planning is required in advance. 

Once a deer has been darted, those of us involved in the procedure remain outside of the enclosure or in the park vehicle while monitoring the length of time between darting and anaesthesia taking hold, and only approach the deer once confident that this is the case. The Head Keeper and vet always lead in these situations. Due to the size and strength of large deer, there is still potential for crush injuries to personnel even while anaesthetised, whilst involuntary actions such as kicking out or unconscious lunging with antlers. Therefore we all must be aware of our positioning at all times and must always wear steel-toed footwear. With anaesthetised male deer, one member of staff must restrain the head and antlers, another one or preferably two should restrain the legs and another should be positioned at the rump. 

In the photograph to the right, I am shown with my Head Keeper (Andy Foster), a Maintenance Team Member & Keeper (Bob Edgar) and the park vet (Michelle Silvera) moving our 220kg male White Lipped Deer into sternal recumbency, which is a vital aspect of handling anaesthetised ruminants due to the risk of aspiration of food ingested into the rumen and the difficulties fasting these animals prior to procedures. As shown, I was responsible for supporting the deer's rump and maintaining his posture, whilst Andy supported his rear legs and Bob restrained his head and antlers and covered his eyes with a towel. The vet was present to drain a large abcess from his hind left thigh and also take blood samples to check his copper levels, as copper deficiency is a particular problem for White Lipped Deer and requires regular monitoring and supplementation. 

Once in sternal recumbency, I supported the deer's weight throughout the procedure following large animal manual handling training with my knees bent and without straining my back. In this position, I was well placed to have a good overview of the deer's condition, check over various aspects of his body at close range and also monitor his respiration rate. 

Once the procedure concluded, the antidote was administered by the vet and we retreated to a safe distance to allow him to regain consciousness, continuing to monitor him until satisfied that he had recovered to a satisfactory level.